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Actual duty
Definition
Also known as a “duty proper.” A decision becomes morally incumbent when it emerges from specific situations for which we have rationally assessed the relevant prima facie duties.
Beneficence
Definition
The effort to make the world a better place and be motivated to help others improve their lives. This is done through actions and are related to moral obligation. W.D. Ross describes it as a prima facie duty
Categorical imperative
Definition
Theory created by philosopher Immanuel Kant that states people must act on universalized moral duties, outside of our wishes and desires and irrespective of the consequences of those actions. Such principles are unconditional, allowing for no exceptions, no fudging, no arguments about “close enough will do.” They are known and obeyed by all rational humans with an in-born conscience.
Deontology
Definition
Duty-based decision making; moral theories that guide and assess our choices of what we ought to do, based on notions of duty, obligation, and intentions, while downplaying the consequences of those choices.
Ethical egoism
Definition
Justification for utilitarianism that allows an individual to do whatever pleases him or her; people ought to act out of their own self-interests.
Ethical relativism
Definition
Justification for utilitarianism which concludes by stating that each person or culture defines what is right. (See “Relativism,” “Cultural Relativism”)
Eudaimonia
Definition
Contented state of being fulfilled, healthy, prosperous and flourishing. The best possible living, according to Aristotle. (For giggles, say “life, liberty, and the pursuit of eudaimonia” next time you recite the U.S. Declaration of Independence.)
Frankena, William
Definition
William Frankena’s theory of beneficence and justice asks us to use a principle of justice to guide the way we distribute good and evil, rather than merely focus on how we should maximize the balance of good over evil per se.
Hedonic calculus
Definition
Created by utilitarian philosopher Jeremy Bentham to calculate whether happiness would trump unhappiness in any given situation. Measures happiness along seven dimensions: intensity, duration, purity, certainty, fecundity, propinquity, and extent.
IFF (if and only if)
Definition
“If and only if,” a term used in philosophy and logic. It is a “biconditional” connection between statements, so both statements are true or both are false.
Mill, John Stuart
Definition
English libertarian philosopher who viewed liberty as the right of mature individuals to think and act as they please, so long as they harm no one else in the process. He is credited with developing the most sophisticated theory of utilitarianism.
Moral luck
Definition
An outcome of an action, or circumstance, in which someone is blamed or praised for the outcome over which the person had no control. In other words, a result of an action you took over which you had nothing to do with the result.
Morally obligatory
Definition
An act that is required of a person to remain moral.
Rule utilitarianism
Definition
A theory that combines deontological and teleological thinking. It emphasizes the centrality of rules in morality. It insists that we are to decide what to do in particular situations by applying a useful rule instead of asking which action will have the best consequences in the situation in question.
Teleology
Definition
Refers to philosophies concerned with desired ends or consequences; its adherents are called teleologists or consequentialists.
Theory of obligation
Definition
William Frankena’s theory of beneficence and justice. It asks us to use a principle of justice to guide the way we distribute good and evil, rather than merely focus on how we should maximize the balance of good over evil per se.
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